Sculpture, like painting and architecture, served the monarchy, the church and the bourgeoisie. One of the main achievements of Mannerism (from the Italian maniera, manner) in sculpture was expression, which the Baroque style developed to a previously unprecedented level. In general, the following trend existed in sculpture: a human figure against the background of a building is likened to a concert for voice and orchestra. The figures extend beyond the niche, the frame becomes a three-dimensional form that can be entered behind. Sculpture resembles painting, painting resembles sculpture. The first innovation introduced by Baroque sculpture was an interest in the dramatic complexity and diversity of the world. The main attention was paid to the dynamism of the ensemble through the implementation of scenes depicting a specific moment of some action. The sculptors sought to include the audience in the space of the sculpture and enhance the spectacle of the scene. Many masters began to use combinations of various materials in their works. In Baroque sculpture, Renaissance harmony and clarity give way to the elements of changeable forms, emphatically dynamic, often filled with solemn pomp. Decorative trends are growing rapidly: sculpture is literally intertwined with the architecture of churches, palaces, fountains, and parks. During the Baroque era, numerous ceremonial portraits and monuments were also created. The principles of classicism, rethought during the Enlightenment, played an important role in the development of Western European sculpture in the 2nd half of the 18th - 1st third of the 19th centuries, in which, along with historical, mythological and allegorical themes, portrait tasks acquired great importance.
The largest representatives of Baroque sculpture are L. Bernini in Italy, A. Schlüter in Germany, P. Puget in France, where classicism developed in close connection with the Baroque (features of both styles were intertwined in the works of F. Girardon, A. Coisevox, etc.). Another major sculptor was Antonio Canova, whose first works are a reflection of the Baroque style. The choice of subjects related to biblical, mythological themes of heroic or dramatic nature is typical. His works are distinguished by their monumentality, unusualness, pretentiousness, dynamic angles, and general dramatic sound (“Orpheus”, “Hercules and Lichas”). Gradually Canova moved away from the Baroque style and his best works belonged to classicism. At the same time, sculptors of this period strengthened the element of theatricality in their compositions.
Of note is Giovanni Lorenzo Bernine (1598-1680), who is considered the greatest master of all Italian Baroque. As a court architect and sculptor for the popes, G. Bernini headed all architectural work in Rome. In his work, the active interaction of architectural masses and space, characteristic of the Baroque, was most clearly manifested. His works are distinguished by their spatial scope, ceremonial pomp of decoration, flexible dynamics of forms, and bold perspective effects. He picturesquely combined various materials, using paintings, gilding, and marble. Bernini's first architectural work was the reconstruction of the Roman church of Santa Bibiana (1624) together with Piero da Cortona. He then became famous for his design of the high altar in St. Peter's Basilica (1624-1633), created jointly with Francesco Borromini, located in the center of the vast interior of the cathedral, under a dome created by Michelangelo. In accordance with Bernini's design, an entire structure rose above the altar, with huge 26-meter twisted bronze columns supporting a rich gilded bronze canopy. It was intended as a monumental canopy over the tomb of St. Peter, reminiscent of the canopy traditionally held over the pope as he is carried through the church. On top are a ball and a cross supported by four angels. The motif of twisted columns appears for the first time in Gothic architecture, this essentially deconstructive form is used by Bernini and acquires here, in the Cathedral of St. Peter, the meaning of one of the main architectural themes. Both the columns, entwined with laurel branches, and the canopy itself are covered with niello; against this background, gilded sparkling details appear, which creates a strong architectural effect. Bernini was an outstanding sculptor of his time. His works were characterized by perfect plastic modeling, dynamism and expressiveness of images. Particularly characteristic is his famous sculptural composition “The Ecstasy of St. Teresa” in the Roman church of Santa Maria della Vittorio, depicting a mystical vision of the famous associate of the church, the Carmelite Teresa, during which an Angel penetrated her heart with a fiery arrow of Divine love. Bernini builds the interior of the Cornaro Chapel around his sculptural group with St. Teresa. A marble pavilion with an opening at the top where light streams from a high window, the illusionistic effect of clouds on the vault, false stands where spectators are seated contemplating this scene... It is impossible to achieve a greater analogy with the theater. In 1629, Bernini was appointed chief architect of St. Peter's Basilica and Palazzo Barberini. Bernini created the colonnade and square in front of St. Peter's Basilica - the largest architectural ensemble in Italy in the 17th century. One of the most beautiful churches in Italy in the 17th century. The Roman church of Sant'Andrea, built by Bernini in 1653, is rightfully considered. The most impressive religious and artistic decorations made by Bernini are the “Throne of St. Peter” (1657-1666) - a gilded bronze covering of the medieval wooden throne (cathedra) of the pontiff. The illusion is created that the chair is supported by 4 bronze figures of the founding fathers of the early church: St. Ambrosius, Athanasius, John Chrysostom and Augustine, above them is the golden glory of angels on clouds in rays of light emanating from the Holy Spirit in the form of a dove in the oval window. In the late period of his creativity, Bernini completed the design of the chapel of St. Peter's Cathedral - Santissimo Sacramento (1673-1674), in which he contrasted the soft profiles of heavenly angels with the architecture of the bronze dome. The largest of the latter works is the Altieri Chapel in San Francesco Ripa (c. 1674) in Rome. In a niche at the top of the altar there is a statue depicting the death of Blessed Ludovico Albertoni.
Translated from Italian, barocco means “strange, surprising, bizarre.” The Baroque style originated during the formation of the monarchical system of government in Italy. It has been widely used in the fields of fine art, sculpture, music and architecture. His calling was to glorify the power of the church and aristocratic society of that time. Baroque was able to express a new idea of the boundlessness and diversity of the surrounding world, its unity and dramatic variability, and aroused interest in the elements of nature.
The history of the Baroque - a new era in Europe to replace the Renaissance
It was in Italy that the High Renaissance arose (16th century). Despite the difficult political situation of the country, dominated by foreigners (the Spaniards and the French), Italy continues to remain the cultural center of Europe. During this period, the Italians could not afford to build new chic or, as it was called earlier, style).
The advent of Baroque made it possible to create the illusion of wealth without expensive materials.
The active development of culture began due to lack of funds. The construction of luxurious palazzos was beyond the means of the nobility and representatives of church authorities, but they still needed confirmation of their own wealth and power. The upper classes turned to art for help - the emerging direction elevated them and, due to this, gained more and more popularity.
Features and features of style
The Baroque movement is characterized by the contrast of images and their dynamism, the combination of illusory forms and reality, and the splendor of compositions. Sculptural elements, rusticated columns, volutes and braces, as well as pilasters are used in the interiors and exteriors of buildings. It was often possible to find expanded colonnades of significant proportions. The Baroque style inherited the tendency to amaze the imagination. This can be observed in complex dome forms, made in the form of multi-tiered structures. Distinctive features also include the use of caryatids, atlases and mascarons.
Classicism is a movement in art (17-19 centuries). Characterized by a return to a culture that was considered an ideal model.
Invaluable contributions to the field of architecture were made by:
- Donato Bramante is the founder of Baroque architecture.
- Giacomo Della Porta, Carlo Maderna and Domenico Fontana are architects of the early Baroque period.
- Francesco Brromini is a representative of radical architecture.
- Santino Solari - created the first Baroque cathedral in Salzburg.
Sculpture
Sculpture was an organically inherent part of Baroque art. Lorenzo Bernini was recognized as the most famous sculptor of the 17th century. His most popular works on mythological themes are:
- Pluto (god of the underworld) abducting Proserpina.
- “The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa” is an altar group located in one of the churches in Rome.
- Apollo (god of light) pursuing the nymph Daphne, who miraculously turns into a tree.
The photo shows a Baroque sculpture made of wood. It was this material that prevailed in the creation of sculptures, and for greater realism with crystal cuts and glass eyes.
Fashion
The Baroque era developed during the reign of Louis XIV (2nd half of the 17th century), when impeccable etiquette reigned at court. France was the trendsetter of fashion trends in Europe, and other countries strictly followed French fashion trends.
European outfits are characterized by incredible pomp, complemented by numerous decorations.
The dresses of beautiful ladies have changed - unlike the Early Renaissance, they were on whalebone. The dress gradually widened at the bottom of the skirt, and a train was attached to the back of the dress. A deep neckline revealed the shoulders, and high hairstyles that came into fashion were covered with scarves and caps made of thin fabric.
Men wore long kaftans decorated with lace and colorful bows. High boots were worn exclusively during military campaigns or in the fields. In a civilian setting, representatives of the stronger sex wore shoes. Shoes were decorated with agraphs (buckles), but over time, bows became more popular.
The gentlemen's heads are covered with elegant wigs, flowing in curly locks over the shoulders and sticking up. Both women and their boyfriends began to use cosmetics in exorbitant quantities. Faces and wigs were carefully powdered. In addition, flies appeared - they gave a bright contrast to the incredible whiteness of the skin.
An example of the outfits of the Baroque period can be seen in the photo.
Characterized by emphasized theatricalization of images, dynamism of poses, expressiveness of faces and gestures, and specific extravagance. It emerged in the 17th – first half of the 18th centuries, as one of the components of the Baroque era in culture.
One of the main achievements of Mannerism in sculpture was expression, which the Baroque style developed to a previously unprecedented level. At the same time, the sculptors of this period, led by Bernini, strengthened the element of theatricality in their compositions.
The first innovation introduced by Baroque sculpture was an interest in the dramatic complexity and diversity of the world. The main attention was paid to the dynamism of the ensemble through the implementation of scenes depicting a specific moment of some action. The sculptors sought to include the audience in the space of the sculpture and enhance the spectacle of the scene. Many masters began to use combinations of various materials in their works. Sculpture, like painting and architecture, served the monarchy, the church and the bourgeoisie.
Gian Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680)
Bernini is considered the creator and exponent of the Baroque. His sculpture embodied the main elements of this style: dynamism of poses, sharp turns of bodies, expressiveness of gestures and faces, polished marble surface, as well as multiple angles, which allows you to perceive the sculpture from different points of view. Bernini made marble glow, which gave his so-called “talking” marble, including court portraits, a special vitality. He knew how to extract the most important from the wishes of his clients and, in combination with the achievements of his predecessors and the entire artistic heritage, reduced it all to one main idea. He included the viewer in the action and created an interactive space between him and his work. Among his best works of the early period are Apollo and Daphne (1622-1625) and David (1623).
Bernini's creativity flourished during the reign of Pope Urban VIII (1623-1644) and continued until 1660. To give greater expressiveness to the characters, the sculptor enhanced facial expressions and carefully trimmed the folds of clothing. The most outstanding works of this period are "Saint Longinus" (1629-1638) in St. Peter's Basilica, a realistic and expressive portrait of Constanza Buonarelli (1635), a funerary monument to Pope Urban VIII (1627-1644), where Bernini introduced polychrome, "The Ecstasy of St. Teresa" (1647-1652), is a masterpiece of the master, which has an erotic connotation, and the canopy in St. Peter's Basilica (1657-1666), emphasizing the greatness of papal power. The last period of the sculptor’s work (1670-1680) was marked by an increase in spirituality. Among the works of this period, “Blessed Lodovica Albertoni” (1674) stands out.
Mythical French vanity
French sculpture of the 17th century. marked the beginning of a decline that only a few authors who emerged in Italy managed to avoid. At some point, Simoi Gillen stood out, demonstrating great talent in creating portraits that strictly followed academic canons. Jean Barin became famous as a medalist in the era of Cardinal Richelieu. Jacques Sarrazin, who went through the Italian school, combined classicism and baroque in his work and was ahead of the style of Louis XIV. The Angers brothers also followed the Italian model, only to later turn to a more sentimental classicism. Two sculptors, François Girardon and Antoine Coyzevox, broke with Bernini's legacy. Both worked on the decoration of the Palace of Versailles and were the king's favorite sculptors. Girardon was guided by classicism, which was manifested in the sculptural group “Apollo and the Nymphs of Tethys” (1666) and the tombstone of Cardinal Richelieu (1675-1677). His successor Coyzevox distinguished himself at Versailles in the field of decoration, in which he departed from the classical canons.
Expression of religious feeling in Spain
When we talk about sculpture in Spain, we mean the entire territory controlled by the Spanish monarchy in the 17th century: Lombardy, Naples, Flanders and America. Baroque sculpture in Spain had its own specifics: it moved away from the traditions of the Renaissance and concentrated on the embodiment of pathos, appealing to the feelings of the audience.
In plastic art, a certain duality was established between realism and symbolism: subjects taken from real life were used, but their reading was proposed in a religious key. In form, the sculpture was closer to classicism, and in content - to baroque. Many masters worked in the traditions of folk polychrome sculpture, and 17th-century sculpture found its highest embodiment in polychrome carving, which combined plastic arts with painting. Not only the church, but also the royal court encouraged sculptors to create sculptures from stone, in particular tombstones.
Taking into account local characteristics, it is customary to distinguish several schools. A major master of the Valladolid school was Gregorio Fernandez, who went from late mannerism to the heights of baroque. His work “Pieta” (1617) for the Augustinian monastery in Valladolid is interesting. In Andalusia, all activity was concentrated in two cities - Seville and Granada, where sculptors emphasized the realism of sacred images, but enhanced their emotionality and spirituality. In Seville one can trace the evolution from the mystical and ascetic naturalism of Martinez Montanez to the developed Baroque of Pedro Roldan. In the work of the first, the images of St. Jerome (1600) and St. Francis Xavier (1619) are of interest, and in the work of the second, the design of the altar in the Cathedral of Seville (1670-1672). In Granada, Alonso Cano's work developed from Baroque to Classicism, as can be clearly seen in the example of the "Immaculate" from the sacristy of the Cathedral in Granada (1655). José Risueño is the best representative of the late Baroque. In the period preceding the rise of Rococo, Francisco Salcillo was active in Murcia. Catalonia is famous for its magnificent altar decorations.
Unlike Italy or France, where, along with religious themes, mythological ones were also widely cultivated, Baroque sculpture in Spain was of a purely cultic nature. Wooden sculpture, which was then painted, was very popular. A typical example is the Pietà (1617; National Museum of Sculpture, Valladolid). This sculptural group, made by Gregorio Fernandez, is imbued with deep pathos.
Introduction
Louvre
Paris
Sandstone; height - 2 m
Akkadian period 2300-2100. BC e.
Stele of King Naramsin:
Height 2 m
In honor of the victory over the Lalubei
Above is a mountain
2 symbols – moon and sun
The landscape is depicted (which was alien to the Sumerians)
The figure of King Nerumsen stands out for its scale
The Lalubei king begs for mercy
The young man leaned back expressively
Unity of composition
Composition – rising diagonals (give dynamics, a triumphant sound)
Several corpses - conventionally shown defeat
The human proportions are realistic; plastic; new compositional principles
By the time of the triumphant accession of the Baroque to the throne of European culture, masters of plastic arts had already achieved everything that made 17th-century sculpture one of the most effective instruments of power. Baroque sculpture stood firmly on the foundation of realism revived by the Renaissance and the results of the creative searches of the mannerists. One of the main achievements of Mannerism in sculpture was expression, which the Baroque style developed to a previously unprecedented level. At the same time, the sculptors of this period, led by Bernini, strengthened the element of theatricality in their compositions. Baroque art was a theater: all its genres complemented each other, creating a space in which architecture was perceived as a stage, and sculpture and painting created a living performance.
These guidelines contain a brief description of Baroque sculpture in Italy, Spain, France and Germany, presented in the relevant sections and identifying common stylistic features and national characteristics, as well as a brief description of the interior of Baroque palaces and private mansions. The text is accompanied by illustrations that help to more fully reveal the content of the educational material. The sections contain test questions on the topic under consideration, focusing on the objectives of the study and increasing the level of self-control of students.
The purpose of these guidelines is to contribute to the formation of a base of necessary systematic knowledge on the topic “Baroque Sculpture”, giving an idea of the emergence, characteristics, spread of the style, its place and significance in history.
The powerful flow of Baroque carried along architecture, sculpture, painting and ornamental art so evenly that none of them dared to appear without connection with the others. Baroque sculpture is closely related to architecture. It decorates the facades and interiors of churches, villas, city palazzos, gardens and parks, altars, tombstones, fountains.
The innovation introduced by Baroque sculpture was an interest in the dramatic complexity and diversity of the world. The main attention was paid to the dynamism of the ensemble due to the embodiment of scenes, a certain moment of some action. The sculptors sought to include the audience in the space of the sculpture and enhance the entertainment value of the scene. Many masters began to use combinations of various materials in their works. Sculpture, like painting and architecture, served the monarchy, the church and the bourgeoisie.
In Baroque it is sometimes impossible to separate the work of the architect and the sculptor. The artist who combined the talent of both was Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini (1598-1680). As a court architect and sculptor to the popes, Bernini carried out orders and headed all the major architectural, sculptural and decorative works that were carried out to decorate the capital. He owns the most typical creation of the Baroque - the dazzling decorative richness of various materials, the unrestrained artistic imagination of the seigneury in St. Peter's Cathedral (1657-1666) (Fig. 1.1), as well as many of the statues, reliefs and tombstones of the cathedral.
Bernini turned, like the Renaissance masters, to both ancient and Christian subjects. But his image of David (Fig. 1.2), for example, sounds different from that of Donatello, Verrocchio or Michelangelo. ʼʼDavidʼʼ Bernini is a rebel, he does not have the clarity and simplicity of the images of the Quattrocento, the classical harmony of the images of the High Renaissance. Unlike his predecessors, Bernini showed the duel between David and Goliath itself, and not the preparation for it and not its finale. David turns sharply to throw a stone from his sling at his opponent's head. The legs are spread wide apart, the face reflects the gloomy excitement of battle. The sculptor turned David into a symbol of Divine justice.
Rice. 1.2 Giovanni Lorenzo Bernini
was a typical artist who worked on behalf of the Catholic Church. For this reason, in his altar images, a certain religious idea is always clearly expressed in the language of baroque plasticity. This is, for example, one of his best compositions - “The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa” (1645-1652) (Fig. 1.9) in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria in Rome. Here he combines marbles of different colors and gilded bronze in one work, achieving complete illusoryness and the utmost picturesqueness of the sculpture. Bernini polished the stone, making it play with many highlights. He conveyed the finest nuances: the texture of fabric, the shine of eyes, the sensual charm of the human body. His statement is widely known: “I made marble as flexible as wax.” This is confirmed by the magnificent sculptural groups “The Rape of Proserpina” (1621-1622) (Fig. 1.3) and “Apollo and Daphne” (1622-1624) (Fig. 1.4), made on the themes of ancient Roman mythology, “Blessed Lodovica Albertoni” (167 4 ᴦ.) (Fig. 1.5) is the last work of the master.
The master created many sculptural altars for Roman churches, tombstones of famous people of his time, fountains of the main squares of Rome (Piazza Barberini, Piazza Navona (Fig. 1.7, Fig. 1.8), etc.), and in all these works their organic connection is manifested with the architectural environment.
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Rice. 1.3 Fig. 1.4
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Bernini is the creator of the Baroque portrait. This image is ceremonial, theatrical, decorative, but the overall ostentation of the image does not obscure the real appearance of the model. Such, for example, is the portrait of Cardinal Scipione Borghese (1632) (Fig. 1.6).
Rice. 1.6 Fig. 1.7. Fountain ʼʼFour Riversʼʼ.
Fragment. 1648 - 1651.
Rice. 1.8. Piazza Navona. Fountain ʼʼFour Riversʼʼ. 1648 – 1651.
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Bernini is considered the creator and exponent of the Baroque. His sculpture embodied the main features of this style:
Blurring the boundaries between the tasks of sculpture and painting;
Refusal of plastic rest; not only in poses, but
and in the play of faces the desire to express life and passion is manifested;
Reproduction not of the state of the heroes, but of the action from which
a brief moment is captured;
Illusory transfer of the texture of objects;
Love for combining different materials (texture, color);
Complication of silhouettes and angles of figures, which allows you to perceive
sculpture from different points of view;
Theatricalization of action;
Involving the viewer in the action and creating an interactive space
between him and the work.
Test questions and assignments on the topic “Baroque Sculpture of Italy”
1. Name the characteristic features of Baroque sculpture.
2. Is there a connection between Baroque architecture and sculpture?
What is the role of Baroque sculpture in solving general stylistic issues?
3. Name the names of Italian sculptors who worked in the Baroque style.
4. Determine the thematic boundaries of Baroque sculpture.
5. Which sculptural compositions of L. Bernini are dedicated to
mythological stories? Explain the new interpretation of these images,
who stood in the service of Catholicism.
6. Give a comparative description of “David” by L. Bernini and
Renaissance interpretation of the image, highlighting the inherent characteristics of this work
Baroque features.
7. Name the sculptural composition of L. Bernini, which is
an example of the synthesis of Baroque arts; give a description.
8. Name the characteristic features of a Baroque sculptural portrait in
example of the works of L. Bernini.
It is impossible to imagine Baroque architecture without sculptural decoration. According to its purpose, Baroque sculpture is divided into cult and secular. Cult sculpture includes individual statues, sculptural groups, relief compositions, and sculptural tombstones. Their main theme is the depiction of characters from the Holy Scriptures, scenes of miracles and martyrdom. Cult baroque sculpture is a semblance of earthly passions and affects, colored by spiritual impulse. As the most striking example, we can cite the example of the sculptural composition of Giovanni Bernini “The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa”.
Secular Baroque sculpture is represented by monuments of various types and purposes: ceremonial statues of monarchs, portraits of the nobility, sculptures for city fountains and landscape sculptures. A typical feature of Baroque sculpture is the need for the environment, active interaction with it, with the elements of water, air, light. Works of Baroque sculpture require an architectural or landscape frame, so the impression of them is lost in the museum environment. Baroque sculptors love marble and bronze, a combination of precious decoratively expressive materials. But in countries with strong traditions of peasant crafts (Bavaria, Austria, Poland, the Baltic states), wood is experiencing a brilliant revival in decorative ensembles of church decoration.
In Baroque sculptures we see the subordination of the material to the artistic idea. The expression of movement in Baroque plastic art is especially evident in the sculptural groups created for fountains. Among them are the famous works of Bernini - the “Triton” fountain on Piazza Barberini in Rome, the “Four Rivers” fountain on Piazza Navona, etc. The core of their compositional design is the movement of water. Sculpture and water form one whole. The figures and rough blocks of stone with their asymmetrical forms echo the movement of water, its flows and streams beating in different directions. Everything is connected in a complex, seemingly random ensemble - a product of the natural elements. All together gives a feeling of the indomitable life of nature.In the Renaissance, painting gravitated towards sculptural principles; in the Baroque era, sculpture tended towards the picturesque. Masters are proud of their ability to liken sculpture to painting. This effect is helped by the light reflections playing on the surface of the sculptures. The sculptors' plans are designed to perceive the most delicate transitions of light and shadow on the human body, therefore the air space surrounding the figures plays a very important role in Baroque art. It was the Baroque that opened the landscape and park era of secular sculpture.
In the late Baroque era, decorative sculpture achieves complete freedom: statues fill the entire space of churches and facades, sit on the ledges of cornices, and fly up to the dome. In the Renaissance, sculpture served as a decoration for walls; in the Baroque era, it became a decoration for space.
The brightest master of Baroque cult sculpture was Balthasar Permoser (“Despair of the Damned,” “Saint Ambrose”). His works are distinguished by expression that turns into great inner strength, the uniqueness of small plastic works, and global philosophical problems.
The sculptor Antonio Canova is known for his work in the Baroque style. His works are characterized by a choice of subjects related to biblical, mythological themes of heroic or dramatic nature. His works are distinguished by their monumentality, unusualness, pretentiousness, dynamic angles, and general dramatic sound (“Orpheus”, “Hercules and Lichas”). Gradually Canova moved away from the Baroque style and his best works belonged to classicism.
During the Baroque era, numerous ceremonial portraits and monuments were also created.
The largest representatives of Baroque sculpture are L. Bernini in Italy, Germany, and France, where classicism develops in close connection with Baroque (features of both styles are intertwined in the works of F. Girardon, A. Coisevoux, etc.).
In Russia he worked in the style of baroque sculpture.
