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Warfare Civil strife and war The Mayans often fought with each other. Some historians even see this as the main reason for the decline of classical Mayan culture. Wars in the ancient Mayan civilization were fought for many reasons, serving political, economic or religious goals. A frequent cause of war was control over rival city-states, so wars were fought with the goal of removing a rival dynasty from someone else's throne by installing a controlled ruler on it. In a political sense, the main thing was the reputation earned in the war by the victorious ruler. In an economic sense, victory over the enemy provided access to new trade routes, and part of the population of the defeated city-state was enslaved. For religious purposes, a victorious war served to capture new people, who in the future were sacrificed in religious ceremonies. It is noteworthy to note that the wars of the classical period did not aim to seize enemy territory and annex the conquered lands to the victorious city. Thus, the formation of a powerful unified Mayan state did not occur during the classical period. Weapons Mayan warriors used war clubs, blowpipes, knives, spears, axes, macanas and other weapons in battles. Arrows and leaves were also used. At the same time, the sheet was twisted into a tube through which arrows, often with contaminated tips, were launched at the enemy. Helmets were rarely used by the Mayans, but the Mayans used shields made of wood and animal skin in battle. The Mayans also had wooden swords with flint blades inserted into them and sling-like devices. Interesting devices, as a rule, were leather cords that were pinched with fingers or worn on the wrist. They worked as an auxiliary catapult for longer throws of short spears (darts), with the use of these devices the throwing range doubled.
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Architecture Mayan art, which found expression in stone sculpture and bas-reliefs, works of small sculpture, wall paintings and ceramics, is characterized by religious and mythological themes, embodied in stylized grotesque images. The main motifs of Mayan art are anthropomorphic deities, snakes and masks; it is characterized by stylistic grace and sophistication of lines. The main building material for the Mayans was stone, primarily limestone. Typical of Mayan architecture were false vaults, upward-facing facades, and ridged roofs. These massive facades and roofs, crowning palaces and temples, created an impression of height and majesty. Temple in Palenek.
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Clothing The main attire of men was the loincloth (esh); it consisted of a palm-width strip of fabric that was wrapped several times around the waist, then passed between the legs so that the ends hung in front and behind. The loincloths of eminent persons were decorated “with great care and beauty” with feathers or embroidery. A patti was thrown over the shoulders - a cape made of a rectangular piece of fabric, also decorated in accordance with the social status of its owner. Noble people added to this outfit a long shirt and a second loincloth, similar to a wrap-around skirt. Their clothes were richly decorated and probably looked very colorful, as far as can be judged from surviving images. Rulers and military leaders sometimes wore a jaguar skin instead of a cape or attached it to their belt. Women's clothing consisted of two main items: a long dress (cube), which either began above the chest, leaving the shoulders bare, or (as, for example, in Yucatan) was a rectangular piece of material with slits for the arms and head, and an underskirt. Judging by the surviving images, the dress and skirt could be worn either together or separately; in the latter case, the chest remained open (probably, one or another method of wearing was determined by the woman’s social status or local customs). The outerwear, like for men, was a cape, but longer. All items of clothing were decorated with multicolor patterns. Mayan Huypil King Costume - traditional Mayan women's clothing
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Art The art of the ancient Mayans reached its peak during the Classic period (circa 250 - 900 AD). The wall frescoes in Palenque, Copan and Bonampak are considered some of the most beautiful. The beauty of the images of people on the frescoes allows us to compare these cultural monuments with the cultural monuments of the ancient world, therefore this period of the development of the Mayan civilization is considered to be classical. Unfortunately, many of the cultural monuments have not survived to this day, as they were destroyed either by the Inquisition or by time. Stone relief from this period in Mayan art
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Maya The Maya were a Mesoamerican civilization known for their writing, art, architecture, and mathematical and astronomical systems. The beginning of its formation dates back to the pre-classical era (2000 BC - 250 AD), most Mayan cities reached the peak of their development in the classical period (250-900 AD). By the time the conquistadors arrived, it was in deep decline.
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History Early Preclassic period (about 2000-900 BC) During the Early Preclassic stage of Maya development, settlements appeared and agriculture developed in the settlement areas. The first buildings attributed to the Mayan civilization in Cueyo (Belize) date back to approximately 2000 BC. e. From this place the Mayan tribes settled north to the Gulf of Mexico. Hunters settled in Copan (Honduras) around 1100 BC. e. During the Early Preclassic period, the city of Lamanai (Belize) was founded. Middle Preclassic period (about 899-400 BC) In the Middle Preclassic period of development, further settlement of the Mayans took place, and trade between cities developed. Around 700 BC e. writing appears in Mesoamerica. The influence of the Olmec civilization is noticeable in Mayan art of this period. Late Preclassic Period (ca. 400 BC - 250 AD) The earliest Mayan solar calendar carved in stone dates back to around 400 AD. The Mayans accept the idea of a hierarchical society ruled by kings and royalty. The founding of the city of Teotihuacan also dates back to the Late Preclassic period. Early Classic period (about 250-600 AD) The earliest, dating back to 292 AD. e. the stele at Tikal depicts the figure of the ruler of Kinich-Eb-Shok. Around the year 500, Tikal became a “superpower”; the inhabitants of Teotihuacan settled in it, bringing with them new customs and rituals, including those accompanied by sacrifices. In 562, war breaks out between the cities of Calakmul and Tikal, as a result of which the ruler of Calakmul captures the ruler of Tikal, Yash-Eb-Shok II, and sacrifices him. Late Classic Period (circa 600-900 AD) The Mayan civilization of the Classic Period was an area of city-states, each with its own ruler. The Mayan culture, which spread throughout the Yucatan, is experiencing its heyday; during this period the cities of Chichen Itza (c. 700), Uxmal and Coba were founded. The cities are connected by roads, the so-called sakbe.
The art of the ancient Maya reached its development during the Classic period (about 250-900 AD). The wall frescoes in Palenque, Copan and Bonompac are considered some of the most beautiful. The beauty of the images of people on the frescoes allows us to compare these cultural monuments with cultural monuments of the ancient world. Therefore, this period of development of the Mayan civilization is considered classical. Unfortunately, many of the cultural monuments have not survived to this day, as they were either destroyed by the Inquisition or by time.
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Architecture
Mayan art, which found expression in stone sculpture and bas-reliefs, works of small sculpture, wall paintings and ceramics, is characterized by religious and mythological themes, embodied in stylized grotesque images. The main motifs of Mayan art are anthropomorphic deities, snakes and masks; it is characterized by stylistic grace and sophistication of lines. The main building material for the Mayans was stone, primarily limestone. Typical of Mayan architecture were false vaults, upward-facing facades, and ridged roofs. These massive facades and roofs, crowning palaces and temples, created an impression of height and majesty.
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Writing
The main elements of the writing system were signs, of which about 800 are known. Usually the signs look like a square or an oblong oval; one or more characters can be placed together, forming a so-called hieroglyphic block. Many such blocks are arranged in a specific order in a rectilinear grid, which determined the spatial framework for most known inscriptions. Inside this grid, hieroglyphic blocks form rows and columns, the reading of which was subject to special rules. Also of great importance are pictographic signs depicting, often in detail, animals, people, body parts and household items.
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Writing and time reckoning
The exceptional intellectual achievements of the pre-Columbian New World were the writing and timing systems created by the Maya people. Mayan hieroglyphs served both ideographic and phonetic writing. They were carved on stone, painted on ceramics, and used to write folding books on local paper called codices. These codices are the most important source for the study of Mayan writing. In addition, the Mayans used "Tzolk'in" or "tonalamatl" - counting systems based on the numbers 20 and 13. The Tzolk'in system, common in Central America, is very ancient and was not necessarily invented Mayan people. The Olmecs and the Zapotec culture of the formative era developed similar and fairly developed time systems even earlier than the Mayans. However, the Mayans advanced much further in improving the numerical system and astronomical observations than any other indigenous people of Central America.
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Mayan letter
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Geographical position
The territory occupied by the Mayan civilization. The border of the Mayan culture is highlighted in red, the territory of Mesoamerican civilization is highlighted in black.
Currently (2011), the territory where the Mayan civilization developed is part of the states: Mexico (states of Chiapas, Campeche, Yucatan, Quintana Roo), Guatemala, Belize, El Salvador, Honduras (western part).
About 1,000 sites of the Mayan culture have been found (at the beginning of the 80s of the 20th century), but not all of them have been excavated or explored by archaeologists, as well as 3,000 villages.
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Religion
Among the ruins of Mayan cities, buildings of a religious nature dominate. It is assumed that religion, together with the servants of the temples, played a key role in the life of the Mayans. In the period from 250 AD. e. until 900 AD e. (classical period of Mayan development), the city-states of the region were headed by rulers who had, if not the highest, then at least a very important religious function. Archaeological excavations suggest that representatives of the upper strata of society also took part in religious rituals.
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Time, space and the end of the world
Like other peoples who inhabited Central America at that time, the Mayans believed in the cyclical nature of time and astrology. For example, their calculations of the movement of Venus differed from modern astronomical data by only a few seconds per year. They imagined the Universe divided into three levels - the underworld, earth and sky. Religious rituals and ceremonies were closely related to natural and astronomical cycles. Recurring phenomena were subjected to systematic observations, after which they were displayed in various kinds of calendars. The task of the Mayan religious leader was to interpret these cycles.
In particular, according to astrology and the Mayan calendar, the “time of the fifth Sun” will end on December 21-25, 2012 (winter solstice). The “Fifth Sun” is known as the “Sun of Movement” because, according to the Indians, the Earth will move during this era , from which everyone will die. The end of the world, which should be followed by the next birth of the Universe. This date gives rise to many modern alarmist false prophecies and esoteric speculations. This theory is especially popular in the New Age movement, where it is mixed with the Christian anti-pagan idea of the Apocalypse.
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General information The Mayans lived in Central America, in the territory of modern Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras. The ancient Mayan people numbered more than 3 million people. The Mayan civilization is a big mystery for modern scientists. The discovery of Yucatan and then Mexico by Europeans turned into a tragedy for the local population. During the conquest of Yucatan by Europeans, almost all written sources of the Mayan civilization were destroyed. The newcomers craved only material values, not paying attention to spiritual values. Many monuments of the spiritual culture of the Aztecs, Mayans, and Incas were destroyed. The MAYAN civilization begins its history in 3000 BC.
Cities Currently, about 1,000 sites of the Mayan culture have been found, but not all of them have been excavated or explored by archaeologists, as well as 3,000 villages. All Mayan cities were built basically according to the same principle: temples and pyramids were located around a central square - this was the main part of the city. The temples stretched up tens of meters. Further from the center followed houses for priests and nobility, and after that, on the outskirts of the city, houses of ordinary residents, built from less durable materials. Some of the cities had complex sewer systems and systems for collecting and storing rainwater. The roads were 10 m wide, about 100 km long and were a straight line. The most famous Mayan cities: Chechen Itza, Ushman, Coba, Palenque, etc.
Writing and Counting The exceptional intellectual achievements of the pre-Columbian New World were the writing and counting systems created by the Maya people. The Mayan language is unique and has no similarities with any other language in Central America. The Mayans carved hieroglyphs on stone, painted on ceramics, and wrote folding books on local paper called codices. The Mayan writing is so complex that it still causes controversy among experts and cannot be completely deciphered. The Mayans used the twenty-digit system of calculation in mathematics (based on the number of fingers and toes). A dot represented one, a line represented five, and the image of a snail was used to represent zero or the number 20. The Mayan civilization was the first to use zero in mathematics.
Science The Mayan calendar was based on a mythical starting date - August 13, 3113 BC. The Mayan year - "haab" - consisted of 365 days (18 twenty-day months and five additional days). The Mayan calendar, despite its antiquity, is surprisingly accurate. To compile such an accurate calendar, according to scientists, it would be necessary to observe and record the movements of the planets for approximately ten thousand years. They did not know the wheel, but they knew the structure of the solar system and performed surgical operations. They knew more than four hundred medicinal plants, and used narcotic drugs during complex operations. The greatest invention of the Mayans was the calendar.
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The Ma Yas are a civilization in Central America known for their writing, art, architecture, and mathematical and astronomical systems. It began to take shape in the pre-classical era (2000 BC - 250 AD), most of its cities reached the peak of their development in the classical period (250 AD - 900 AD). It continued to exist until the arrival of the conquistadors.
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The territory occupied by the Mayan civilization. The border of the Mayan culture is highlighted in red, the territory of Mesoamerican civilization is highlighted in black.
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The Mayans built stone cities, many of which were abandoned long before the arrival of Europeans, others were inhabited even after. The calendar developed by the Mayans was also used by other peoples of Central America. A hieroglyphic writing system was used, partially deciphered. Numerous inscriptions on the monuments have been preserved. They created an effective farming system and had deep knowledge of astronomy.
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Mayan pyramids Mayan culture is based on knowledge of the laws of the seasons and the movement of the planets. Based on this knowledge, they determined the location for their religious centers, which sometimes turned into real observatories, consisting of several pyramids connected by passages. In pre-Columbian America, the Mayans were undoubtedly the most skilled architects and masons. They mastered two basic techniques of construction art: the construction of vaults, which made it possible to create ceilings of a very large area, and the use of cement, which made it possible to build strong walls even from small stones. Beginning in the 9th century, the Mayans overcame the dominance of the Toltecs, but continued to build huge structures, such as the pyramid temple of Chichen Itza.
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The ruins of the Mayan city of Tikal are hidden deep in the jungles of Guatemala. Several temples and palaces of the city rise above the cover of the jungle. The city's intricately carved stones are exposed to the weather. A huge area of the city is covered with moss and swallowed up by jungle. The only inhabitants of this place are wild animals and birds.
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Mayan calendars Fragment of a stele (Stele 1 at La Mojara) showing three columns of glyphs from the 2nd century AD. e. The left column contains the Long Count calendar date 8.5.16.9.9, or 156 AD. e. The other two columns contain glyphs of the Epiolmec script. Dresden Codex.
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In the 9th century, some strange, terrible and mysterious catastrophe occurred. After which all construction stopped and people left their habitable places, and the jungle swallowed up all the Mayan cities with its vegetation. By the arrival of the conquistadors, only small scattered tribes remained from the great Mayans.
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What happened to the Mayan Empire when, according to some scientists, at least one million people died within just a hundred years? According to one version, this is due to a major drought, as well as strong earthquakes and even epidemics of malaria and fever. According to another version, which was quite popular at one time, all this was attributed to social upheavals - uprising, riots, revolution. The third version of scientists is associated with periods of changes in solar activity, the influence of which on the rise and decline of civilizations was discovered by American scientists in the 90s. XX century. The fact is that the process of formation of sunspots changes every 3744 years and the next decline in solar activity will be on December 23, 2012, the date that the Indians consider the end of the modern fifth era of the life of the universe. Research has established that the decline of Indian civilization occurred during the peak of the least solar activity. This affected the hormonal activity of women and their fertility, as a result of which the Mayan population began to decline sharply, and infant mortality reached unprecedented levels in the entire history of civilization.
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Sources. http://mesoamerica.narod.ru/ http://mesoamerica.narod.ru/mayafall.html http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CA%E0%EB%E5%ED%E4%E0% F0%FC_%EC%E0%E9%FF
Ancient Mayan civilization. In pre-Columbian America there was a Mayan civilization, rightfully recognized as one of the brightest. A diverse group of Indian peoples numbering about 2.7 million lived in Mexico. There is a hypothesis that people settled America thirty thousand years ago, coming there from Asia. Despite the fact that the Maya until the 10th century AD. e. they did not know how to cultivate the land with a plow and did not use artiodactyl animals in their activities, they had no wheeled carts and no idea about metals, they were constantly improving. In particular, they mastered hieroglyphic writing. And they are currently helping scientists in the study of this civilization. The Mayans understood the movements of the moon and the sun and predicted eclipses. Their calculations are relative to displacements. They also began to use the concept of zero earlier than representatives of Arab countries and Indians. The skillful combination of astronomical knowledge and writing helped tribes record time. Art flourished in this civilization: they created beautiful sculptures, ceramics, erected majestic buildings and painted. Mayan art The art of the Mexican Indians reached its highest degree of development in antiquity in the time period from 250 to 900 AD. e., the so-called classical period. The most beautiful frescoes were found by researchers in the cities of Palenque, Copane and Bonampaque. Now they are equated to cultural monuments of antiquity, because the ancient Mayan images are really not inferior to the latter in beauty. Unfortunately, many of the valuables have not survived to this day, destroyed either by time or by the Inquisition. Architecture The main motifs in Mayan architecture are deities, snakes and masks. Religious and mythological themes are reflected both in small ceramics and in sculptures and bas-reliefs. The Mayans created their works of art from stone, mainly using limestone. The architecture of this people is majestic; it is characterized by massive, soaring facades of palaces and temples, and ridges on the roofs. Mayan Studies The Mayans created cities using only muscular strength, built temples and palaces under the leadership of kings and priests, and carried out military campaigns. They also had their own gods, whom they worshiped, and ritual sacrifices and ceremonies took place. For a long time, scientists believed that no one lived permanently in the ceremonial centers, and the buildings were used only for performing rituals. But later it was proven that for the most part the palaces of the nobility and priests were built quite close to them. Thanks to research into ceremonial centers, quite a lot of information was obtained regarding the life activity of the upper strata of Mayan society. New research has allowed scientists to create a completely different chronology of this civilization. They found that the Maya are at least 1000 years older than previously thought. It has been proven that they were made in the period 2750 - 2450. BC e. Maya today Today, the number of descendants of the ancient civilization on the Yucatan Peninsula is approximately 6.1 million, with approximately 40% of the Mayans living in Guatemala, and around 10% in Belize. The religious preferences of the Mayans have changed over time and now represent a combination of ancient traditions and Christian ones. Each modern Mayan community has its own patron. The form of donations has also changed, now it is candles, spices or poultry. A number of Mayan groups, wishing to stand out from others, have special motifs in their traditional clothing.
